In the following article Daniel Martel analyzes the relationship between technology and culture vis-à-vis the airline postcard. Through a careful analysis of a vast archive of photographic images, Martel's work touches on the technical aspects of production, the economics of the airline industry, and the semiotics of the artifacts themselves to provide a detailed examination of the web of forces that contribute to the production images in the age of globalization.

Aircraft Picture Postcards as a Tool for Influence Through Images

Daniel Martel

I. Introduction [1]

<1> The era in which we live at the turn of the millennium is defined by most scholars -- depending on their specialisation -- as the era of worldwide economic integration, adoption of technologies of western origins, internal harmonization of institutions and working procedures, and cultural standardization. The roots of this can be traced back to the Renaissance, as well as the industrial revolutions and economic liberalism. Their driving forces are successful economic transactions and permanent innovation. According to this worldview, the ultimate goal of any such activity is the optimised individual situation of any human being or economic agent. Western military technology has taken the worldwide lead since the 16th century (Held, Mc Grew et al., 2000: 104-107). During the 19th, industrial and economic principles became the paradigmatic reference throughout the globe (Mc Clellan and Dorn, 1999).

<2> Following the changes of 1989, this paradigm yielded another phenomenon, which is called globalization. Empirical evidence allows the conclusion that today's world is ruled almost everywhere by elites inspired by its underlying economic, technological and cultural worldview (Beck, 2000: 99-103). The same can be said about those parts of the population who have enough resources to imitate them (Beck, 1997) [2]. Those in favour of this paradigm talk of liberalism; those with a critical attitude towards it refer to it as capitalism. It should be borne in mind however that even those who criticise or protest against today's dominant worldview nonetheless rely on many of its technological backbones in their everyday life and even their activism against. Examples are the World Wide Web and air travel. Furthermore, most individuals regardless of their ideological position or residence have been taking for granted many more things implemented all over the world through this same process. Examples are photography and picture postcards. Both of them appear self-evident to anybody provided that he/she has been acculturated with the westernised civilization [3].

<3> Photography and postcards have more or less become synonyms of what is called the society of consumption. Usually they are seen by scholars as leftovers of own experiences and projections of desires or those of relatives (Sontag, 2003: 9-30). They have also become consumer goods in themselves, which follow the logic of market. History shows that their diffusion process was identical to that of most industrial goods. They were artistic and creations accessible to an elite only before they turned into a mass market good (Sontag, 2003: 9-30).

<4> This paper attempts to highlight how photography and postcards can be used as a source for the study of a technological change in various parts of the world and how it was witnessed in all of them over time. The technology taken as an example is civil aviation, and the evolution is followed through pictures from different periods. Comparison shows how decision makers responsible for corporate communication of airlines interacted through images with potential customers. In detail, the way airlines and commercial editors of postcards presented flight as a positive experience through their photographs diffused as picture postcards is analysed. The research is based on the assumption that these pictures have always idealized the ideas the population had of air transport at the time the illustration was released. In other words, the pictures can be compared to ideal types [4].

II. The backgrounds of air travel-related photography

<5> Aviation has become a key element of the worldwide transportation system (Gunston, 2001). As rational economic actors, the air carriers are vigorously competing with each other all over the world (Doganis, 2001b). Their service product, e.g. space for travellers and their luggage, is undifferentiated and highly perishable (Hanlon, 1999: 5-28). Unsold seats are lost after take off (O'Connor, 2001: 5-6). Successful sales are therefore essential. As the liberal economic paradigm suggests, this is only possible if attention of the public is drawn to these capacities. The most common strategy for this is placing advertisements.

<6> Images are widely used to maximize impact of such messages. This form of representations is considered to be the most efficient way to raise emotions. The respective centres of the human brain of the onlooker and potential consumer are directly stimulated (Kroeber-Riel and Esch, 2000: 145-150). Several representative techniques do exist, like for example drawing and painting. Each of them has evolved over time as far as contents and form of illustrations are concerned. Pictorial representations of any kind may be used for historical analysis (Leeuwen and Jewitt, 2003: 1-10). Such illustrations have however been considered as personal views and therefore biased (Ball and Smith, 1992: 16), (Sontag, 2003: 12).

<7> Photographs on the other hand have been considered ever since as "objective" and "credible" (Ball and Smith, 1992: 15-16). They are the result of the "mirror image" of some object at a given moment projected through the lens of an apparatus on a data carrier and fixed there. They become reflections of the status of a given space at a certain time. In other words, photographs "quote appearances" (Ball and Smith, 1992: 16), (Oelze, 2003). They do reveal neither the circumstances the picture was made nor the motivations of its author. These may be in view of a direct objective. This category includes documentary (Sontag, 2003: 27) [5], functional, e.g. for police forces or real estate agents (Sontag, 2003: 27) and artistic, e.g. created according to aesthetic criteria (Flusser, 1999a). Other more implicit goals include emotional subjects (Sontag, 2003: 23), for instance when poverty is pictured, instructive ones, usually within the system of values compatible with the intended "lessons" to be given (Juenger, 1930) [6] and ritual (Sontag, 2003), e.g. when a family event or a holiday trip are to be remembered (Flusser, 1999a: 52-53). There is a third motivation as well, which may be defined as proactive memorization. The authors know that the moment they live, such as an inauguration, is unique, and the world they see and experience will not last forever. Therefore they want to keep it preserved for the future through images. In other words, the author plans for future considerations of the past (Flusser, 1999a: 18). Such photographs preserve information over time and even allow its diffusion over space (Flusser, 1999a: 45). This can be explained by the fundamental motivation of most humans who attempt to become "immortal" somehow [7].

<8> Developed during the 19th century, the technology of photography had grown mature by the turn of the 20th (Oelze, 2003). Like other documents, photographs remain unchanged after creation. This makes them reminders of the past (Brandt, 1998: 48-56). Researchers rely on them in their attempts to reconstruct and to understand the thoughts and feelings of their creators (Crivellari, 2003). The researcher sees and interprets these sources through the eyes of his/her present (Carbonell, 1981). A lot of things have evolved since the creation of the document and the researcher is usually sensitive to a certain worldview when he/she is interpreting realities. He/she may for instance be inspired from left- or rightwing conceptions (Prior, 2003: 145-164).

<9> The researcher has to bear in mind something else. Photographs only seem to be the freeze of a spontaneously chosen moment in time. In many cases they have been at least partially constructed or staged [8]. Most often, they are meticulously prepared (Ball and Smith, 1992: 17). This applies to the posture of people shown, the presentation of the objects, the angle of vision and the background, as well as illumination (Schlaak, 2003). In case the photograph is part of an advertisement, even the people are usually preselected. After all, they have to give the desired touch to the product or service they supposedly are so happy with (Flusser, 1999b: 37).

<10> Photography is seldom a spontaneous act but in most cases one occasioned by the circumstances. Making pictures of family events, excursions and holidays has almost acquired ritualistic importance (Sontag, 2003: 14-15) [9].

<11> The photograph does therefore less represent a "quotation" of persons or objects than the mirror of how these were considered by people who made or commandeered the picture (Ball and Smith, 1992: 18). This in turn depends on the technical, economic, social and cultural context at this time and the particular circumstances of the moment the picture was made (Goodwin, 2003: 157-182). The researcher using photographs as sources is advised to include these questions into his/her work (Collier, 2003: 35-60).

<12> Another aspect not to be neglected is the purpose of the picture. Whenever it is an element of an advertisement, it reflects the way the product or service was supposedly considered by the target public at its time and how the supplier differentiated its own products from those from competitors [10]. These preliminary results allow comparative studies (Przeworski and Teune, 1970) of the ways the authors of the pictures, usually working for the supplier of the goods, translated the latter's strategy of winning over competition.

<13> Self-representation as an argument in a competitive world has been observed in aviation as well (Lovegrove, 2000). The basically identical service product of all airlines has been differentiated in secondary aspects. Technical and functional constraints have limited the creative freedom to details, such as the decoration of the cabins (Stroud, 2002), as well as nature of food and ways of service (Proctor, 1996). Like other transportation service providers, air carriers have been using postcards since the early days for their campaigns (Wicki, 1996). They understood that if such campaigns were to yield results, they had to be part of a long-term coherent integrated communication strategy (Kroeber-Riel and Esch, 2000: 100-108).

III. The World of Airline Pictures

<14> Most often, photographs have been used in advertisements published in printed media and billboards. However, picture postcards have been appreciated as an efficient means of communication as well. They have been released either by the airlines themselves, airport authorities or, most often, independent commercial editors.

<15> Since postcards remain unchanged after publication, they allow chronological studies. The comparison of samples edited at different moments reveals changes within the sceneries pictured. A closer analysis of the contents of examples published at different moments reveals changes. Types of aircraft are replaced or colour schemes altered. Other evolutions are also discernable. Examples are wardrobe of passengers, attires of flight crews or architecture at airports. Like any document, postcards are artefacts from a specific context (Atkinson and Coffey, 1997: 45-62). They served a determined purpose and were released at a given time. If the visible evolution is easily determined through comparative chronological contents analysis (Bell, 2003: 11-34), the phenomena behind these changes have to be identified.

<16> The evaluation covers four levels. The first concerns the visible aspects of the pictures. These are the physical characteristics of the postcards such as the editor and the type of picture printed on it. The aircraft may be pictured either during the flight or on ground for example. Next, evolution of aircraft technology and architectural development of airports over time are examined. Third, clues to the strategies of visualisation chosen by the airlines as competing economic actors within the same market are determined. How have the authors of the picture positioned them as more attractive service providers than their competitors? What types of views have they used and how have they composed them? The fourth step focuses on details, which might give clues how the creators of the pictures responded to the latent perception of air transport by the population at the time the illustration was made. How have they shaped a professional flight crew accordingly?

Table 1: Levels of Analysis

<17> Throughout its history air transport has been prone to several technological and economical constraints. These are its complexity, the undifferentiated character of the service product and the necessity of sale due to the fragility of the air carriers (Doganis, 2001b). In detail, the question how the need to be considered in a positive way has been translated into imagery over time is examined. The study centers on the assumption that airlines try to place themselves as exactly to the prevailing vision of air travel by the targeted publics at the moment as possible. Since air transport has become an essential element of worldwide economy after the Second World War only, the survey based on the private collection of some 35,000 picture postcards of the author covers the time from 1945 to 2003.

<18> Since the paper focuses on decision makers who attempt to shape and thus influence the way other people see them through illustrations, the concept of the "technical image" by Vilém Flusser is used. This framework explains the sequence of the transformation of abstract ideas through illustrations into visible experiences. The research strategy and method were chosen in view of the attempted objective. This is an assessment of synchronic processes in various parts of the world. Comparative methods allowing simultaneous spatial and temporal comparison are used.

IV. From the abstract "technical images" of Vilém Flusser… [11]

<19> Vilém Flusser's core idea is that the human way of seeing and understanding the world has evolved with the technological development (Rosner, 2000: 77-98). At the beginning, men perceived the world in its real state of nature and considered it directly. This changed after the invention of alphabets and later data carriers capable of transportation of texts over space and time. Human interpretation of the reflections of light on the retinas of their eyes was less and less inspired from what they actually saw but more and more from their knowledge gained from texts consulted previously. Experiences and evaluations by other people transmitted through an abstract medium henceforth shaped the perception by the individual (Rosner, 2000: 77-98).

<20> A second and more important layer of externalised experience was added by photography and later film and video (Rosner, 2000: 77-98). During the evolution, which would lead to the global occidentalized technical civilisation, apparati allowing instant reproductions of any object at any place at any moment were developed. Due to their portability and ease of use, photographic cameras could be deployed everywhere. The pictures they produced created a new reality for onlookers. Flusser calls is the "photographic universe" (Fotographisches Universum) (Flusser, 1999a: 65). It represents the visible part of many more universes governed by apparati [12], such as institutions, public relations or production of goods and services. Any of these abstract worlds can be pictured and therefore made understandable. Since its invention, photography has completed and partially replaced the written text as a carrier of information and worldview and again shaped the way people see and interpret the world (Flusser, 1999a: 10). Numerous empirical studies confirm this with regards to a variety of themes such as nature and animal life (Geimer, 2002: 183-194), work and profession (Collier, 2003: 35-60), minorities and gender situation (Bell, 2003: 11-34), natural and cultural attractions interesting tourists (Speich, 2002: 47-65) [13], (Sontag, 2003: 15) or human influences of disasters (Jensen, 2000). In all these cases, the authors conclude that the images associated with these sceneries by average people are not shaped by the physical reality but the sum of pictures seen and memorized by them [14]. In other words these visualizations called "technical images" (Technische Bilder) by Flusser serve as "compulsory models" (Vorschriften) for perceptions of the physical world (Flusser, 1999a: 55).

<21> "Technical pictures" have several characteristics. A first one is their ability to make the abstract visible and therefore real (Rosner, 2000: 77-98). In fact, photographs of landscapes or towns materialize abstract concepts such as "erosion" or "untouched nature." Second, they reveal hidden aspects and details of the physical world impossible to be seen with the naked eye (Rosner, 2000: 77-98). Examples are details of turtles, facial expressions of soldiers under fire or speed through a blurred background whereas the train or the sliding hockey player are clearly visible. Another example is air travel. Who has not seen the picture of a plane taken from above while it was flying over a landscape? Unless one travels in parallel aboard a second aircraft and uses a telescope or a telephoto lens, it is materially impossible for the layman to contemplate an aircraft from above flying over the countryside (Bowers, 1980). Third, they create new knowledge and worldviews shared by other spectators. Examples are pictures showing deforestation over time or the structure of the eye of an insect. Finally, they can be reproduced through apparati operated by others (Flusser, 1999a: 47). Discount shops all over the world prove it every day.

<22> Everybody can become a "producer" (Einbildner) of technical images (Flusser, 1999b: 42). However, pictures only become relevant if other persons accept their contents. This happens if the illustration meets the following three criteria. The first is "evidence" (Evidenz). This picture has to be plausible. The scenery of the plane flying over the earth is an obviously plausible visualization. It can be taken for granted that almost anybody regardless of his/her ideological conviction and worldview knows that airplanes exist. Second, the information has to be "coherent" (Kohärenz). Aircraft do really travel through the skies, even if they are only seen as tiny specks from the ground. Finally, both evidence and coherence have to be accepted by the onlooker. "Consensus" (Konsens) has to be found. In the example of the airplane there seems to be no problem. Depending on the subject this may prove very difficult [15]. If consensus is reached between the producer and the consumer of the picture, other people may be willing to adhere to it. In that case, an "epistemic community" (Epistemisch) [16] based on the shared consensus on what is visible on the picture emerges (Rosner, 2000: 77-98).

<23> In the end a producer may impose his/her way of seeing the world through pictures. This may be the case for artists, commercial advertisement agencies whose photographs attract a growing number of customers or illustrations from official sources such as government agencies. In other words, the producer of the illustrations quasi automatically occupies a position of authority or predominance in the field of the subjects pictured. Technical pictures suggest therefore relationships governed by a realist worldview, e.g. based on relationship of power within the system studied.

<24> According to Flusser, technical images are nonetheless a democratic institution. Anybody can produce and inject them (Streuung) (Flusser, 1999a: 68) into the public space [17] or political arena [18] provided that the political system allows that. Flusser defines the ideal society as one where "discourse" (Diskurs) as the sum of all acts emanating from the "centres of power" (Gesellschaftszentren) (Flusser, 1999b: 77) dominating society such as authorities. "Dialogue" (Dialog) on the other hand represents the result of all critical attitudes, ideas and manifestations against the official positions taken by the "centres of power," counterbalance each other. The more this is true, the more the society is democratic. The same principle applies to the flows of technical images. In Flusser's view however, not the pictures themselves are essential but the information they contain (Flusser, 1999a: 47).

<25> In reality, the majority of these representations emanate from centers of power. These may have any form and configuration. They diffuse such illustrations to the target public in the interest of shaping their perception and opinion. As outlined above, a pluralistic society allows parallel diffusion of images. These producers have the choice between two options. They can support the centre of power. In this case, their pictures reproduce those originating at the core. They act as "relay stations" (Informationsüberträger) (Flusser, 1999a: 46). They can even strengthen its position with regards to the target public or society. This is the case when they diffuse pictures on their own reflecting the point of view of the centre of power and therefore multiply the number of sources. This is also possible by taking over and retransmitting pictures created by other independent authors. In case producers contradict the center of power, their technical images counterbalance or weaken the position of the latter. If the centre respects the democratic rules of the game, it tolerates them or even learns [19] from them. In case the center does not act in their respect, it diffuses new pictures of its own until the dissident ones are "overflooded" [20]. The more technical images emerge, the more they become "redundant" (Redundanz) and overlay the real world they illustrate (Flusser, 1999b).

<26> Although Flusser does not explicit on most of the above points (Rosner, 2000: 77-98), the following conclusions can be drawn. Centers of power may be of any nature. The theory of the technical images allows almost any operationalization like for instance the theory of social systems by Luhmann (Hayoz, 1991). The theory also tolerates differentiated subsystems. In other words, distinctions between sources and their interaction among them is possible. Figure 1 illustrates the various configurations of relationship between the "centre of power" and the target publics.

Figure 1: Relationships Centre of Power - Target Public
Source: Author based on (Rosner, 2000: 77-98), (Flusser, 1999a), (Flusser, 1999b).

V. ...to the real world of picture postcards

<27> As outlined in the introduction, postcards showing air travel-related subjects attempt to raise positive associations between the onlooker and the airlines. There are several sources of such pictures. Many of them are edited by the airlines themselves (Example 5). A restricted number comes from airport authorities.

<28> Most postcards however are published by independent commercial editors (Example 6). The pictures on them originate from three sources. The first are photographs released by the airlines for use by the editor. In this case, he/she uses a "pre-image" (Example 7). This concept is inspired from the notion of pre-text used throughout media theory and practice. It illustrates a contribution by somebody else such as a press release taken over by another media person for use as a source for his/her own work. The pre-text conveys the point of view of its source institution or individual. Whenever the information of such sources is integrated, the final media product is the result of an intertextuality (Luginbuehl, Baumberger et al., 2002: 19-25). This phenomenon exists in the reproduction and diffusion processes of images as well (Luginbuehl, Baumberger et al., 2002).

<29> A second strategy is commandeering a photographer and printing his/her pictures. Yet another way are pictures taken by the editor him-/herself for use as models for postcards (Example 6, Example 8).

<30> Next, the model by Vilém Flusser is adapted to the empirical study. The "centre of power" is represented by the airlines. Are reproducers those editors who publish "pre-images" released to them by the airlines. Those editors who publish pictures on their own initiative are other producers.

<31> The following example illustrates this. A photographer making postcards depicting local tourist attractions wants to add a view from the visitor's gallery of the airport serving the region. He/she makes a series of pictures and selects a scenery suitable for publication [21]. Since he/she lives in the region, he/she most probably chooses a plane of an airline, which is somehow correlated with it. In many cases this would be a local or national airline [22]. The new postcard is then sold at the newsstand of the airport, usually together with other cards from the same editor showing landscapes or monuments the region is famous for. The card illustrating the airport may be distributed at other places such as souvenir shops near major sights. Later, competing editors may add their own postcard showing sceneries from the local airport to their collection. Since the publishers do compete each other, they try to differentiate their postcards as much as this is practicable. As a result, the global variety of pictures of the airport increases [23]. The overall pictorial presence of the airline which may have a bunch of own postcards available in its aircraft or the ticket counter at the same airport is multiplied and strengthened by redundant pictures originating from one or several editors. In view of this example, Figure 2 adapts the theoretical findings by Vilém Flusser to the background of the research.

Figure 2: Origins of postcards showing air travel-related subjects
Source: Developed by author based on (Rosner, 2000: 77-98), (Flusser, 1999a), (Flusser, 1999b).

<32> In the following, the theoretical framework is applied to the strategy of showing air transport in a context of changing values and perceptions of the airline industry. Next, motivations of airlines to act as centres of power are evaluated. Afterwards, the relevant aspects of postcards as the selected carrier of technical images are outlined. After an outline of the methodology, the major results of the empirical survey are presented. The paper is concluded by general observations with regards to the research question, the theoretical framework and historiography in a context of technology in general.

VI. Factors behind Airline Postcards

A. How Air Travel grew into Mass Transport

<33> The development of travel by air can be divided into several distinctive periods. The years from 1945 to 1950 can be considered as the final era of the pioneering age. Planes were not yet comfortable and fares very high. Travel by air still was more or less an adventure (Gunston, 2001). Whoever had the opportunity to climb aboard a plane was a celebrity, a successful professional or a wealthy citizen.

<34> During the 1950s, flying became practicable (Schieldrop, 1957) but remained out of reach of most budgets. Nonetheless, an increase in business and other professional travels is perceptible (Stroud, 2002). The leisure market slowly emerged but remained the privilege of some "happy few." Nonetheless, growing economic impact of air transport on national economies led to the construction of new airport facilities (Thomas, 1959). They rapidly grew into major attractions for those who could not afford themselves to board one of the aircraft they could see from the observation gallery (Klaauw, 1962: 64) [24].

<35> The 1960s, which witnessed a dramatic rise in the overall standard of living in the western world, brought air travel within reach of financial resources of average people. Despite falling fares following the introduction of more productive jet-powered aircraft travel by air remained something exclusive (Walker, 2000). Airliners were understood as something positive, as the symbol of victory of men over nature through technical genius (Ingells, 1970: 125-127) [25]. Airports were almost mythical places for travellers, relatives and visitors alike (Allen, 1968).

<36> The 1970s saw another increase in aircraft capacity following the introduction of wide-bodied aircraft. They led to another increase in productivity followed by a decline in fares (Hagrup, 1975). However, fundamental changes in economy and society made the situation for air carriers more difficult. The oil crisis of 1973 led to a worldwide recession. Growing ecological awareness and an emerging critical attitude towards technology [26] did not spare air transport. Several spectacular accidents [27] accelerated the change of perception of aeronautics from something positive to a potential hazard. Finally, civil aircraft became the target of terrorists (Arey, 1973). This led to the closure of many visitors' galleries and airports became less attractive for onlookers. Despite all this, numbers of passengers increased further.

<37> Mass transportation by air emerged during the 1980s following the deregulation in the United States after 1979 (Ditze, 1989). The formerly strictly ruled largest airline market of the world was liberalized. Airlines opened lots of new services. The structure of airline networks changed as well. They were gradually reorganized in form of "hub-and-spoke" system offering convenient connecting flights [28]. Falling margins and higher cost of production worsened the situation of airlines (Morrison and Winston, 1995: 6-35). Other reasons for this were intensified competition among carriers and a growing focus on cost everywhere. This was one of the consequences of a paradigmatic change initiated during the reigns of Reagan and Thatcher. Later it was known as neoliberalism. Another factor was the increased mobility of factors of production, itself the result of measures of reduction of cost everywhere. Numbers of passengers literally exploded. The same trend towards minimal cost of production and tightened security precautions meant the end of many more airport spectator facilities (Harrison, 1991). All this led to a new perception of flying as just another form of professional and vocational transport.

<38> However, it was only during the 1990s that travel by air did transform into mass transport (Doganis, 2001a). The end of bipolarity after 1989 led to the generalization of the western economic and social paradigm all over the world. One of the consequences were no-frills carriers. Traditional airlines formed alliances, globalizing thus the competition for connecting passengers. Another paradigmatic change, usually referred to as "shareholder value" thinking, affected carriers all over the world. Its core argument were even greater cuts in spending everywhere in order to raise the immediate benefits for the shareholders at the stock exchange. All this happened in a context of ever growing competition. Since consumption played an always greater role in everyday life, airports over the world more or less grew into similar looking shopping malls. Competition among them increased as well after the change of airline networks towards hub-and-spoke-operations (Gottdiener, 2001) [29]. However, with some exceptions confirming the rule [30] they grew even less attractive for the reasons outlined above for those who wanted to see the planes (Lord and Harrison, 2000).

<39> The most recent development witnessing the end of the dotcom-bubble, the worldwide economic downturn and the attack of the New York-Twin towers by airplanes cannot yet be assessed. New developments such as the Airbus A380-800 for 555 passengers seem to give back a certain aura to air transport (Pascoe, 2001). These are counterbalanced by the worse structural crisis of air transport in its history and the fear of terrorism. A further dramatic increase in safety measures have almost chased away visiting air enthusiasts from airports (Lord and Harrison, 2003) -- who have been one of the most potent groups of buyers of airplane postcards.

B. Tactical and Strategic Communication through Imagery

<40> Communication with picture postcards is one element of corporate image projection. This is the way the public sees a person or institution (Birkigt, Stadler et al., 2002). It is based first of all on empirical criteria such as the product or the reputation of the sector of activity. For decades prestige of air travel has been high. Second, personal experience plays a vital part. The third element is form and contents of communication activities. These integrate three elements. The first is visual identity, such as logos or uniforms. Behaviour of the personnel is a second. The third is corporate communications. These include advertisements (Kroeber-Riel and Esch, 2000) or public relations (Avenarius, 2000: 18-27). In order to be effective, corporate communications have to be successful in the short and medium, and the long term.
The immediate or tactical objective is to motivate customers to choose the airline over its competition (Kroeber-Riel and Weinberg, 2003). The goal of strategic communication is to influence the media (Avenarius, 2000) and through this channel economic and political decision makers. This is usually done through media persons who integrate the views of the airline expressed through its pre-texts.

<41> The media person can mention the origin of pre-texts. In this case, the intertextuality is explicit. If the media person does follow in his/her own work the viewpoint expressed in the pre-text without acknowledgement, the intertextuality is implicit. He/she makes his/her a given point of view and therefore adopts a certain ideological or whatever position. His/her media text becomes biased in favour of the source. The latter's interest are therefore implicitly served (Luginbuehl, Baumberger et al., 2002: 88-107) [31].

<42> If this usually long-term strategy succeeds, decision makers gradually adopt the standpoint of the airline (Burkart, 2002). The views stated by the carrier in media releases and other communicative acts are henceforth treated by the journalists as if they were something "self-evident" and almost impossible to challenge. The opinions expressed by the airline conveyed through these acts of communication becomes natural and unquestionable fundamentals like the fight against unemployment or racism [32]. Any contradiction is deemed inappropriate by the majority of stakeholders and the public alike (Kunczik and Zipfel, 2001: 184-197). Finally, the views expressed by the carrier followed by the media become part of the general consensus in society (Bonfadelli, 2000) [33]. In other words, the intertextual contents of media reports make theirs the standpoint of the airline. This form of strategic influence is also observed in imagery (Luginbuehl, Baumberger et al., 2002). In detail it covers three levels. The first is through a systematic integration of pictures from the same source into most if not all contributions referring to the subject, in this case air transport. In other words, whenever the airline is mentioned, one of its pictures showing it in a favourable way is added for illustrative purposes. Second, the media people imitate the images originating from the airline for other contributions. This means that they adopt the same viewpoint as the airline whenever they deal with air transport. Finally, if two sources of pictures compete with each other for media coverage and thus influence, the pictures from one of the protagonists may be systematically used for illustration whereas those from the other are either neglected or replaced by others made by the media people themselves. In this case, they may systematically present the actor through unfavourable pictures, e.g. discriminate against it [34].

VII. Elements of airplane postcards

A. Images For Open and Hidden Interest Promotion

<43> Picture postcards are well suited for image communication of corporations. They are cheap and easily integrated into public relations and advertising campaigns. Since postcards are a common collectible as well, airlines may even assume that their illustrations will be sought for [35]. Their new postcards increase the global pictorial presence and contribute to the creation of a "global archive" (erworbene Informationen zu speichern, zu prozessieren und weiterzugeben) on aviation (Flusser, 1988: 41-55). This permanent accumulation (kulturelles Gedächtnis) prevents the contents of this archive from being forgotten (Entropie) (Flusser, 1988: 41-55). The information is constantly updated which makes it always compatible with the perceptions of the consumers of technical images.

<44> Usually, airlines publish these postcards under their own brand which best convey the image they want to promote. Their origin is evident to anybody. Other pictures, which are sometimes slightly less than ideal, are sometimes traded to commercial editors. In this case, the source of the illustration as seen by the final buyer of the postcard is not the issuing airline but the editor. Publisher cards showing airliners -- usually in flight (Example 2, Example 7) -- therefore appear as neutral iconographic representations of objects worth being shown on a postcard, such as architectural monuments, towns or landscapes (Example 7). The editor bases his/her work on a pre-text respective a "pre-image" as it will accordingly be called throughout the paper issued by the airline. The views copyrighted by the airline become an ingredient of the visual or iconographic heritage of the country (Wicki, 1996) although the picture represents in fact a product placement of a commercial enterprise. As the theoretical framework outlines, the way humans see and experience the world is to a large extend shaped by the sum of illustration the individual has been confronted with. This is particularly the case with pictures of places appealing visitors and tourists (Speich, 2002: 47-65). The aircraft become representations of tourist attractions symbolizing the country. The editor serves the particular interests of the carrier, even if he/she might not even be conscious of this. By editing airline picture postcards, he/she becomes a reproducer and therefore a supporter of the standpoint of the airline. Even in case the editor acknowledges the source, the effect remains the same. Many publishers buy the images from professional photographers. The airline becomes a source like any other.

<45> Pictures taken on ground of aircraft of the same airline increase its overall iconographic presence. These illustrations do not normally originate from within the carrier, but from the editors themselves, professional photographers or collaborators of media departments of airport authorities (Example 8). These views are rarely mandated by the carrier but nonetheless are in its interest. Since publishers want to sell their postcards, they have to make them as attractive as possible from the point of view of potential buyers. Editors thus become secondary producers of images in parallel to the airline. In this role, they strengthen the carrier's overall position due to increased and more differentiated visibility.

B. Picture Postcards for communication and collection

<46> Picture postcards emerged in the same context as industrialization and increased mobility. During the 19th century they carried illustrations of factories and products (Wicki, 1996). Their use as messengers to loved ones was inspired by the German-French war of 1870 (Hille, 1993). After 1885, illustrations of places worth peaceful visits appeared. By the turn of the century, photographs had replaced drawings. In 1902, the Universal Postal Union standardized the current division into an illustrated front and a blank back (Wicki, 1996). After the Second World War photographs on postcards became coloured.

<47> Postcards showing flying machines appeared in parallel to them. During the First World War, pictures showing the plane in flight became available. In the 1920s, the emerging airlines began to use postcards as an efficient means of communication and advertisement.

<48> Almost from the very beginning of their existence, these messengers have stimulated passion by collectors. As early as 1885 the first clubs collectors made their appearance (Wicki, 1996) [36]. Aficionados of airplane postcards have developed their typology (Martel, 2001). A first consideration is the posture of the aircraft. On-ground illustrations show it on the tarmac or on the runway (Example 1). Take-off/Approach pictures freeze it either shortly after departure or before touchdown (Example 2). Air-to-air views are taken from another plane flying in parallel (Example 3). Air-to-ground pictures are taken from an aircraft and usually show an airport (Example 4). The second distinction is its origin. A postcard can be published by an airline. In this case it is referred to as an "Airline Issue" (Example 5). If a commercial editor issues it, it is called a "Publisher Card" (Example 6).

VIII. Methodology of Research

<49> Whenever possible, which means pending availability in the author's collection, postcards from a representative choice of airlines were used.

<50> In Europe, the carriers were British Airways resulting from the merger of two earlier airlines, representing a global actor traditionally focusing on both business and leisure travel, Iberia from Spain as an example of a tourism oriented airline as from the beginning of the period of research, the German Lufthansa, interesting notably business people, and Swissair/Swiss International Airlines having a worldwide reputation for outstanding quality. Some illustrations from former communist countries, notably Czechia and Romania were added as well when no equivalent pictures from the above-mentioned airlines were found. Although they are not truly representative they allow the extension of the survey to countries having been ruled for most of the time by another ideology. If no representative picture from one of the selected airlines was available, the formal aspects of the section were taken into consideration. This means, a sample as close to the others as possible without respect of the airline was selected.

<51> In Northern America, American Airlines and Continental Airlines illustrate two domestic carriers, which grew global after the 1980s. Pan American and Trans World Airlines, the two legendary symbols of the "American Way of Life" were selected as well. Latin America is represented by Avianca from Columbia and Varig from Brazil, mainly due to availability of postcards.

<52> In the Near and Middle East, Air India was chosen. It illustrates the airline of a country, which despite its overall poverty has grown into a major business and leisure destination and which has mastered and integrated almost any technology. EL AL stands for a country seen as a site of permanent war and therefore not an obvious destination for travellers. Turkish Airlines finally symbolises a nation which itself considers a member of the western cultural hemisphere.

<53> In the Far East, the first example is Air China. This airline has become a major player in the aerospace field and represents a country, which is heavily tributary to globalized (e.g. western) technology and behaviour, but nonetheless refuses to adopt wider aspects of western society such as democracy. Japan Airlines is the symbol of the only extra-European cultural space, which has integrated western technology almost in parallel to its emergence instead of accepting foreign domination. Singapore Airlines finally has been positioning itself as a high quality carrier and a worldwide transportation system for passengers travelling less to its home base but rather connecting there from one destination to another.

<54> Africa finally has only one airline which can be used for illustrative purposes throughout the period examined. It is South African Airways from South Africa. The other examples were chosen less with regards to the airline but the picture itself. The lack of postcards even to an avid collector shows that production of postcards has been lower than in the other regions of the world.

<55> In detail, a representative sample of picture postcards published since 1945 by various airlines and editors were analysed to determine how pictorial representation of air travel within the promotional strategy of airlines have changed over time. Three goals were pursued. These were an overall survey of the ways how these representations have been made and to what extend place and time of origin have influenced formal presentation and contents. It follows the logic of a comparative study focusing on similarities and differences (Przeworski and Teune, 1970) with regards to the geographical origins of the illustration and the respective development of air travel. In other words, it is shaped as a comparison of parallel evolutions (Carolina, 1993: 131-167). Were analysed the two possible positions of the aircraft which are in flight and on ground.

IX. The Survey

A. The plane in the air

<56> For obvious reasons, e.g. the complex procedure of making them (Bowers, 1980), pictures showing an aircraft in flight are always prepared and "staged" (Veronica and Hall, 1997). A photographer aboard a second plane flying in parallel realizes them. Exact coordination between both aircraft, a complex camera equipment as well as professional skills are needed [37]. The photographer always benefits from the monopoly of supply (Samuelson and Nordhaus, 2001: 157-164) towards anybody.

<57> Throughout the sample covering the years between 1945 and 2003, the differences are minimal (Example 9). This applies to airlines from all geographical regions and periods of time. The plane is always the dominant feature of the view. On a formal level, the illustrations can be divided in three categories. In the first, just the sky is visible, in the second, clouds are part of the scenery, and in the third, the landscape over which the picture was taken can be discerned (Example 10). In this case, a slight correlation of background and geographical origin of the airline is noticed. For instance, Swissair pictures often show snowy mountains, those from Lufthansa usually cities or plains and those of Ethiopian Airlines deserts [38]. Such differentiation is easily possible since photos of planes manufactured by Boeing are usually made prior to delivery over Washington State. There mountains, coastlines and deserts alike can be found (Veronico and Hall, 1997: 107-126). Those of Airbus are taken over Southern France, the Pyrenees or Northern Germany where a similar variety of landscapes exists. Even manufacturers now gone such as McDonnell-Douglas or Lockheed varied their backgrounds. Regardless of these details, all illustrations look basically the same.

<58> The only way to find out when the picture was taken is through the type of aircraft visible and the colour scheme applied. Both of them have been known to be replaced regularly due to technical progress and changes in industrial designs. The latter development has to be seen in the context of overall changes of feelings for aesthetics (Birkigt, Stadler et al., 2002). Over the years a slight dramatization of angles of views is observed. This is due to better camera and other technical equipment (Veronico and Hall, 1997: 109-111). For short, the basic contents of the pictures remains the same regardless of the geographical origin of the airline and the period evaluated. A first explanation for this commonality is found in the subject itself. An aircraft remains an aircraft whatever the airline operating it. Second, the many technical and operational constraints of such pictures restrict the number of options available. Third, mentalities of decision makers working in aviation (Knauss and Bruetting, 1962) are mostly shaped by operational and technical constraints of aircraft and their operation. These are very close to each other at any geographic location (Galland, 1953). The same is most often true for heads of marketing and public relations campaigns. They come more or less out of the same mould. The slight variations of formal aspects are the result of technical progress. In other words, they all agree that the most logical and naturally looking way to picture the capabilities and technological level of development of the airlines is through the illustration of one of its aircraft in flight [39]. A secondary motivation is showing to competing carriers that the airline in question has an equally modern if not more advanced fleet.

<59> Air-to-air views have been common in airline issued postcards until today. They were also widely available from publishers until the 1980s. Afterwards, their number sharply decreased. Several reasons appear to be at the origin of this change. They are the loss of interest in air transport by the public who buys the postcards, a declining attractiveness of airports for visitors, who were one of the traditional categories of buyers, due to increased security measures, new regulations regarding intellectual property what pictures provided by airlines are, and a change of mentalities within the airline community. The typical executive as he/she may be called gradually replaced the traditional "airliner" with an MBA in business administration. This new breed of decision makers seemed to focus more and more on the immediate "return on investment" which precluded long-term and financially not profitable collaboration with third parties. An overall explanation for these changes is most certainly found in the new economic paradigm of the 1980s. In its focus on short-term profitability it laid the basis for the neoliberalism which emerged a decade later (Autengruber and Wall-Strasser, 2002). Being economic actors themselves, editors adapted to this new situation and started losing interest in return. Pictures delivered by airlines represented only a fraction of their global offer. Since publishers are in a situation of monopoly of supply with regards to both intermediate and final buyers, they could do as well without them [40]. Since the change in the overall offer of postcards is clearly identifiable, the evolution of the number of cards showing aircraft in flight offers an additional probability to identify the period of publication. In short, if the nature of the pictures has remained unchanged, the way in which they have been used by the airlines has changed.

B. The aircraft on ground

<60> Representations of the aircraft on ground can be classified according to several material criteria. A first one is their source. They can originate from airlines, airport authorities, freelance photographers who sell them to editors, and proprietors of editions. Unlike air-to-air shots, such views are not subject to a monopoly of supply.

<61> Several types of contents can be identified. A first one is the aircraft photographed from ground either shortly after take-off or moments before touchdown (Example 11). These pictures are less demanding than air-to-air views but prone to physical and operational constraints as well (Bowers, 1980). The photographer usually stands next to the runway and he/she has to take into account notably the speed of the moving aircraft and the angle of the sun. Such views are usually prepared albeit not directly staged. The photographer enjoys a greater creative freedom. The angle of view, the time of the day or the weather or the background can be varied. Due to the numerous constraints there are no true geographical and cultural variations however. The location can be identified if enough background is visible (Example 12). The type of aircraft and the livery applied allow identification of the time frame. However, such views everywhere look the same for the above-mentioned physical and operational constraints. Geographical origin is therefore no determinant factor of the way the picture is composed.

<62> Since the 1980s, such postcards have gradually taken the lead over air-to-air views supplied by the airlines. They are easier and cheaper to produce and therefore offered the logical substitute for air-to-air views, which were no longer accessible to editors.

<63> A second category are air-to-ground shots. They are rather difficult to prepare and therefore subject to limitations. Nonetheless they offer a lot of creative initiative to the photographer. He/she can focus on an individual aircraft or an airport as a whole. The latter subject is the most common (Example 13). These views allow both geographical and chronological clarifications. Each airport and its surroundings are specific. The moment the photograph was taken can be easily determined. Like other public infrastructure, airports are renovated, adapted and extended (Greif, 1979), (Cuadra, 2002). Their immediate surroundings change as well, notably through urban development (Bernardini, 2002).

<64> Air-to-ground views allow spatial and temporal categorization. Variation among sites however are minimal. Airports have been constructed within narrow technical, economical and functional limits. Architecture has however evolved over time. During the 1950s the buildings were pompous and prestigious. The 1960s added an air of luxury to them (Pascoe, 2001: 54-57). Since the 1970s, they have become more and more functional. In other words, the way airports are built follows the general evolution of air transport. Over the period observed airport buildings do less vary according to local architecture but they rather follow international standards of representative public buildings and infrastructure such as universities or railway stations. Such illustrations have experienced a clear decline since the 1980s in the portfolio of editors as well. However, they have remained an option for airport authorities, which publish them under their name, and in some cases airlines.

<65> A third category are illustrations of the plane on ground either on a stand or on the move (Example 14). Authors of such pictures are almost free to choose the angle of view or other details. Since the same types of aircraft are operated all over the world, these views do not reveal cultural particularities of their place of origin. This means that at any location an airport looks like an airport. Identification of their time of origin is easy since types of aircraft and colours and sometimes the visible background change over time. If this is the case, the exact moment the picture was made can be determined.

<66> More complex are the matters with a fourth category, which is best defined as still lives. As it is the case in other pictorial representations, they create a relationship between the object and its surroundings. The plane is therefore one element of a wider ground scenery. Several ideal types can be identified.
A first one are those showing the plane sitting on the tarmac while being prepared for the next flight (Example 15). Typical sceneries are passengers embarking/disembarking and baggage vehicles being unloaded. These representations can be very different on contents and formal level. In case terminal buildings are visible, the facility is easily identified. Its architectural state as well as aircraft type and airline livery allow to find more or less the exact moment the picture was taken. Further precisions are possible through other details as the two following examples show.

<67> The first is the attire of the flight crew (Example 16). Until the late 1960s these were presented in a formal way, which sometimes is reminiscent of a military platoon. During the 1970s their attitudes became more relaxed. Since the 1980s, crews have been shown in a casual way. Uniforms do not allow cultural differentiation since they have been worn all over the world before 1945 by more or less the same groups of professionals everywhere, among them flight crews. It is therefore the way their bearers are presented that leads to the period the picture was taken. Representations show that flight crews were considered something like "semi-gods" during the early times whereas they are just seen as qualified service professionals nowadays. As the examples show, the same was the case in the "free world" and "socialist" countries alike. In both places, the way of representation has remained the same. This indicates that air transport was seen in both worlds in a similar way.

<68> The way passengers are shown is another way to date the picture (Example 17). Until the late 1960s, people travelling for business were formally dressed. Even those boarding a plane for their holidays used to show their usually high social status through elegant yet casual wear. During the 1970s dress codes in business and leisure became more relaxed. After the 1980s they became casual even for business travellers. This development follows the general evolution in society towards casualization [41]. This applies to elites themselves and those parts of the population who consider them as their reference groups [42]. Again, several motivations can be identified. A first and essential one is the emergence of a new generation of professionals influenced by the critical attitude towards traditional society after 1968 [43]. The appearance of new groups of travellers for whom no formal dress code existed such as technicians was another. A third factor were the extended flying times due to higher range of the aircraft led to the desire to freshen up before the meeting. Finally, falling fares opened plane doors for business and leisure travel to people with lower social and professional status and therefore traditionally without the need to dress formally. The same evolution seems even to have affected the countries behind the iron curtain. Literature as well as personal experience from the author prior to 1989 suggest that those who could afford to fly in this region were either of western origin or representing higher social classes. One of their characteristics was the attempted imitation of occidental lifestyle (Voslensky, 1980). Attires of passengers are therefore a good indicator of the time of origin of the picture. They are less suited as a means to find out the place. Attitudes of these social classes, which could and can afford air travel have been more or less standardized due to the fundamental acceptance of the western-dominated economic and social paradigm [44]. The way the passengers as such have been shown has remained identical over the timeframe observed and this in all regions assessed. This allows the conclusion that those who made the pictures have kept the same ideas on how to represent these sceneries over time and at all places examined.

<69> The representation of the plane itself has changed as well over time (Example 18). Until the 1950s, the powerful machinery was outlined. Examples are details of engines and propellers. In the 1960s, luxury and exclusivity of air travel was put forward. Usually nicely dressed passengers are greeted by smart crewmembers. During the early 1970s, the new widebodies were shown in the same way. In the second half of the decade, the number of such pictures declined. The reasons were the democratisation of air travel and the generalization of airbridges making passengers invisible, as well as the end of observation galleries from where these could be watched. Spatial differences in such illustrations are minimal. This is explained again by the similar attitudes towards air travel everywhere, the closely related mentalities of airline professionals and editors commandeering the pictures, as well as identical hardware everywhere.

<70> A second category of still-lives are views of ground staff members who communicate with the pilots (Example 19). Their code has been internationally standardized as early as the 1920s (ICAN, 1938). For this reason neither spatial nor temporal conclusions can be drawn. This applies as well to those interactions, which took place in Eastern Europe. The same explanations as those in the context of representations of the plane as it moves on ground do apply here. The way the sceneries were banned on film have therefore not changed over time and this in all places evaluated.

<71> A third and last type are postcards, usually from editors, which reproduce the view from the visitors gallery (Lord and Harrison, 2000) (Example 21). These were and in some cases still are very popular among locals and travellers alike (Guentert, 2003: 101). Since every scenery was or is unique and has changed over time, both geographical and chronological identification is easy. Many of these points vanished in the 1970s and 1980s. This was due to extension programs on limited and expensive sites, security concerns after terrorist attacks on civil aviation since the 1970s (Gero, 1997), losing interest by passengers and their relatives waiting for them due to generalization of air travel, and a decreased readiness by airport authorities to invest into something which did not immediately yield tangible profit in the socio-economic context which changed during the 1980s (Harrison, 1983). As a consequence, the demand for such postcards dropped. Since airport sceneries are fundamentally the same all over the world, these illustrations do not differ with regards to their geographical origin. Spatial Identification is simple since each place is unique. However, they do not reveal specific local cultural particularities since all these views look the same.

<72> Finally, there are artistic views (Example 20). Some airlines and editors have highlighted technical details of aircraft almost from the beginning of the evaluated period. In doing this, they have followed two parallel trends in photography. First, complex technical constructions such as locomotives, ships or bridges have been pictured in the same way notably during the 19th and early 20th century as to reveal these "wonders of human genius" to the layperson.

<73> At the same time advertising photography has visualized other undifferentiated products through dramatization [45]. Their presentations do not primarily focus on technical, aesthetical or function aspect of the product but rather try to create emotional association (Kroeber-Riel and Esch, 2000: 74-75). This development has to be considered in the more general context of photography and aesthetics.

<74> Illustrations differ on a geographical level both directly and indirectly. The direct variations are the hitherto familiar keys such as the terminal building or the landscape in the background. A more subtle element are the formal aspects of the picture (Kroeber-Riel and Esch, 2000). In many countries photography has been a form of expressive art like sculpture or painting. Comparative studies with similar approaches to other sceneries such as railway stations, industrial sites or power stations might allow conclusions as far as the place is concerned. Artistic views can also be considered in the wider context of advertising photography. This is particularly the case if undifferentiated goods such as cars are shown. There are variations among regions and within them even individual countries, as well as over time. Pictorial language of artistic and advertising photography in the various regions can there be taken as a basis for both spatial and temporal comparisons.

<75> A closer look to representations of aircraft between two flights allows the following conclusions. Contents of pictures taken at take-off or landing as well as showing an individual plane rolling on ground remains unchanged at all places throughout the timeframe evaluated. This is due to technical and physical constraints. Only details such as aircraft type and livery evolve. It is therefore not possible to draw direct conclusions with regards to cultural particularities of the place they reproduce. An increase in such views as substitutes for air-to-air shots is noticeable after the 1980s. This gives an indirect hint to the changes of relationship between actors and commercial editors of postcards.

<76> Air-to-ground pictures follow a similar development. They have become rarer in the programmes of editors since the same decade as well. As long as they were published, these view offered clues with regards to the place and time of their origin. Once again however there are no intrinsic variations, which could be explained through regional cultural influence.

<77> The situation is different for still lives. The way the individual elements are shown has changed over time. A first evolution is visible through attires of flight crews and wardrobes of passengers. Another one is the representation of the plane itself. Both these developments are the result of changes within society as a whole. The position of air transport within the overall system of values and experiences of the public has not remained the same. The third differentiation is based on formal aspects of the picture. These have to be considered in the wider context of advertising and artistic photography. The way the pictures themselves have been composed has remained unchanged. Finally, sceneries from spectator galleries show the development of airports and planes until the end of the respective facility. If geographical differentiation is again easy, finding of any significant cultural variations is impossible.

<78> As a whole still-lives do allow geographical identification through the contents but not the way it is presented.

C. Similarities and differences in image communication

<79> The following general conclusions can be drawn with regards to illustrations on ground. Take-off/landing views remain more or less the same at any location and throughout the period evaluated for technical and operational reasons. They do not reveal cultural and geographic differences even if identification of the places of origin as such can sometimes be done. Identifying the period during which the pictures were made is possible through the changes of aircraft, liveries and background over time. The same can be said about ground shots.

<80> Still lives on the other hand allow a precise identification of their time of origin. Determination of time is again possible through identification of the type of aircraft and the period the livery was applied. More elaborate and sociologically relevant criteria allow additional precision of the time frame. These are the background and the way crews and passengers are presented. Such views allow studies of formal and artistic evolution of photography in the respective regions over time. As outlined earlier there are some cultural variations among regions. Despite these details, fundamental differences among the various places on both geographical and cultural level are not found. Technical elements of aircraft and infrastructure, as well as attitudes and attires of crews and passengers have remained more or less identical all over the world for the physical and operational constraints outlined earlier. The same has been true for their representations.

<81> Pictures of flying machines taken on ground complete those of the aircraft in its natural element - the sky. They increase the imaged presence of the airline materially, formally and logically. The overall number of postcards showing a specific airline increases and variety of pictures grows more complex. The fact that airplanes not only fly but are prepared for their next journey at the airport is worth being illustrated and analysed as well as the results show.

X. Conclusions of the Survey

<82> Above all, variations of material and formal aspects of communication by airlines through postcards can be identified. The first way is editing its own, whereas cooperation with commercial editors represents a second, indirect strategy. This latter can again be subdivided into explicit reproductive or implicit productive collaboration. Both can be explained with the help of the model of analysis.

<83> If the airline allows the publisher to sell its copyrighted (usually) air-to-air pictures, the partnership is reproductive. As Vilém Flusser pointed out, the situation of the centres of power, which are represented by the airlines, is strengthened through the additional image outputs released towards the same public as the original representations from the carrier. Editors use pre-images and increase the pictorial outreach of the aircraft operator. The partnership airline-editor has existed since 1945. However it declined in the 1980 within the context of changes in mentalities on both sides, themselves the result of a fundamental shift of the dominant economic and social paradigm.

<84> Productive communication for airlines by photographers unrelated to the carriers has continued. Despite operational changes in the relationship, independent editors have pictured airlines without interruption. Their image production has continued to flow towards the public. In other ways, airlines continue to benefit from the flow of illustrations offering them a positively associated presence in public space. Airlines and to a lesser degree airport authorities, have remained present within the iconographic heritage of the region or country. Their technical images have continued to flow within the overall production of representations of geographical aspects and cultural artefacts of the region or country. For short, perception and interpretation of the public, especially the tourists and weekend travellers buying these postcards, of the airline as a part of the heritage worth being illustrated has not come to an end.

<85> As far as contents of pictorial communication through postcards is concerned, the following general conclusions can be drawn. The more the scenery offers creative liberty to its author, the more spatial such as site- and local culture-related, and temporal variance influenced by changing economic and social contexts are observed. Differences are minimal in air-to-air and ground-to-air illustrations as well as pictures restricted to a moving aircraft on ground, medium in air-to-ground views, and important in still lives. The last ones are therefore best suited for the study of the shifting relationship between the target public of the airlines and air travel.

<86> The assumption that airlines have always tried to integrate the current ideal typic representations of the public into their imagery is confirmed. All illustrations published are consistent with the ideas communication decision makers, representatives of airport authorities and editors had on the way they thought the public would consider air transport at the time of the decision to communicate.

<87> The imagery used has remained more or less identical at all places and throughout the assessed period. Formal aspects of illustrations have changed. This has occurred proportionally to the creative freedom when making the pictures. Evolution has been minimal for illustrations of the aircraft, average for surroundings and considerable for its interpretation as a part of a landscape or as a work of art.

<88> The confirmation of the hypothesis also underlines the portability of the theory of the technical images by Vilém Flusser. Theories focused on relationship of power -- which to a large extend depend on the degree the decision-makers and stakeholders can secure their power by making others do what is in their interest -- are normally applied to political strategies used by governments or other "classical" centers of power. As this paper shows, the same strategies of domination and mechanisms of persuasion are practiced at lower levels of decisional power as well -- what airlines trying to sell seats obviously are. In other words, the worldview of realism normally associated with the study of institutions or states , e.g. the analysis of behaviour in a system where the stronger actor impose their view and therefore project their interest on weaker ones, may be adopted for the study of other types of actors as well.

XI. Final conclusions for beginning researchers

<89> These findings open the way to questions, which go far beyond airlines and editors releasing postcards. A primary concern is the place of air transport in the various parts of the world. More or less anywhere its decision makers have been using the same types of messages and the same way of implementing them. The development of air travel into a worldwide industry has led to homogeneous infrastructures and processes. This has shaped the minds of technical and operational airline decision makers in a similar way. The visible material constraints of aviation in these fields have in turn shaped the ideas of media people, editors and the public. All this shows that the air travel industry is an ideal typic example of a functionalist solution to an economic need put forward by inventors and shaped by innovators. It has become a backbone of the worldwide occidentalized civilization.

<90> The postcard itself is an example of a successful innovation process, which already began during the 19th century. Its use as a carrier of corporate communications is practiced or at least understood almost anywhere in the world. Photography has become a part of the global technical civilization through a similar process of innovation and adoption. These examples show that transnational and later global standardization of attitudes (Stokes-Berry and Berry, 1999: 169-200) began long before the current debate on the subject (Held, Mc Grew et al., 2000). It has been based on technological evolution and innovation (Alter, 2002: 15-40). Their results have been accepted by anybody to such a degree that air travel, picture postcards and photography appear evident to many individuals on earth regardless of their geographical place of residence or ideological point of view.

<91> Evolution through innovation reveals something more fundamental. Human and economic needs and physical possibilities to respond to them have been the same all over the world [46]. As outlined earlier, it is western hardware and procedures (Mc Clellan and Dorn, 1999) which have gradually taken the lead over local technologies all over the planet (Desjeux, 2002: 41-61).

<92> Picture postcards are particularly suited for comparative analyses of such processes. Their roles as a cheap means of communication and an object of collection have remained unchanged ever since and they were adopted by all political and ideological systems [47]. Unlike other data carriers they have remained unbiased with regards to their primary function as a data and message carrier. Throughout this paper they were used to evaluate how people of various regions of the world have been living offer and demand of an undifferentiated product, which has remained unaffected in its nature, by the economic and social changes. The results allow more fundamental conclusions on how the people witnessed these technical, economic and social evolution (Linhart, 2002: 105-127). All over the world, economic decision makers have tried to promote the goods or services according to the current representations of the public. Their strategy as such has never changed. What has changed are its contents due to the general economic and social evolution and the way of presenting it due to the change of mentalities of those responsible for the pictures.

<93> Anyone looking into artefacts left over from the past is confronted with two fundamental challenges. All too often photographs are considered as exact reproductions of the empirical reality (Oelze, 2003: www.uni-konstanz.de/FuF/Philo/Geschichte/Tutorium/Themenkomplexe/Quellen/Quellenarten/Fotographien). As outlined in the introduction, this is not necessarily true. The origins of the pictures have therefore to be included into any iconographic research (Hofmann, 2003: 39-42). Like any other source, an illustration remains unchanged after its creation (Brandt, 1998: 48-56). What changes are the ways of seeing (Crivellari, 2003) and interpreting it (Kuchenbrod, 2002). The essential and this should be the case for any research on the past, is to attempt a reconstruction of the context in which the image emerged (Lister and Wells, 2003: 61-91). This includes attitudes and knowledge of those who decided to make them (Goodwin, 2003: 157-182). The level of information prevailing at the present of their creators is usually different, if not to say lower, than that of their ulterior interpreters. A historical study, especially when it intends an evaluation of decisions by stakeholders in a given time and context in the light of the current knowledge should therefore include a critical attitude towards the researcher him/herself (Silverman, 2001: 193-215). All too often, scholars consciously or unconsciously project their present and their world on their sources dating from another time.

<94> A final conclusion on the sources is also necessary. Picture postcards offer unique insights into many aspects of the history of the world. One is how and why their authors want to diffuse their message. The media they use allows them to fix a specific moment. The more time goes on, the more the postcards become time travelling devices. Surprisingly enough, analysis of knowledge obtained during such journeys usually lead us back to our own world. Decision makers and other people have not really changed behaviour as such in the context of a specific situation. They have adapted the ways to reach their goal according to the way they felt the world in which they lived would allow them to do so.

<95> All too often researchers have been surprised by such conclusions. Although these concern the past of the subject of research, the behaviour and strategies of elites, decision makers and other stakeholders may as well have originated in the era the researcher lives. This is particularly true for the history of science and technology, which has taken place since the 19th century in a sphere influenced by western rational thinking. In this context all major decisions need to be compatible with this paradigm as the analysis reveals. The man-technology relationship may be considered as a subsystem of society governed by its own rules as for instance Niklas Luhman (Hayoz, 1991) would qualify it. Photography and postcards are elements of it. Both their characteristics as consumer goods and function as carriers of images can be analysed. The evaluation of the context in which a specific economic activity took place yields results and insights far beyond the intended scope of the research. This is another proof that society as a whole is interrelated and should be considered as a complex system of perceptions, beliefs and ways of influence and domination as a means of interest promotion in view of an optimised individual situation.

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[28] Most if not all direct connections between city pairs are replaced by flights to usually one single airport. There passengers change planes to the connecting onward course. The customer benefits from an increased offer of short connection times and lower fares. Costs of production of hub-and-spoke-networks are lower than those of traditional ones. [^]

[29] This means that the airline alliances gained more transfer passengers if their major hubs were attractive for people waiting between two flights. During the 90s, concepts like "emotional shopping" (Kroeber-Riel and Weinberg, 2003: 368-377) or the "fun society" emerged (Die "Spassgesellschaft", das &quo